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A document (noun) is a bounded physical representation of body of information designed with the capacity (and usually intent) to communicate. A document may manifest symbolic, diagrammatic or sensory-representational information. To document (verb) is to produce a document artifact by collecting and representing information. In prototypical usage, a document is understood as a paper artifact, containing information in the form of ink marks. Increasingly, documents are also understood as digital artifacts.

Colloquial usage is revealed by the connotations and denotations that appear in a Web search for document. From these usages, one can infer the following typical connotations:

* Writing that provides information (especially information of an official nature)
* Anything serving as a representation of a person's thinking by means of symbolic marks
* A written account of ownership or obligation
* To record in detail; "The parents documented every step of their child's development"
* A digital file in a particular format
* To support or supply with references; "Can you document your claims?"
* An artifact that meets a legal notion of document for purposes of discovery in litigation

The variety of usage reveals that the notion of document has rich social and cultural aspects besides the physical, functional and operational aspects.

nformation as a concept has a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.

Many people speak about the Information Age as the advent of the Knowledge Age[citation needed][who?] or knowledge society, the information society, the Information revolution, and information technologies, and even though informatics, information science and computer science are often in the spotlight, the word "information" is often used without careful consideration of the various meanings it has acquired.

Conveyed concept is a set phrase that denotes a concept as understood or perceived. If someone explains an idea or if an idea is conveyed by some type of media then that idea or concept, yes, is a conveyed concept but in the mind of the person/people to whom it was conveyed it is a concept processed within the framework of their understanding of that concept. That concept, being either poorly or precisely conveyed, is now a concept as understood or processed by whomever it was conveyed to and can be referred to as a conveyed concept.[1] [2]

In computer programming a conveyed concept refers to information sent from programmer to AI, computer-to-computer, human to computer, programmer to programmer, etc. In programming an AI program, the conveyed concepts of the AI program are used as building blocks to program new concepts, and it is important that the conveyed concepts are fine tuned in order to create the correct response. In programming, programs need to compare conveyed concepts in order to communicate a correct process or response. In this media the concepts being compared are not what was programmed (the code) but the response of the program so that the code can be changed to achieve the correct response. [3] [4]

Because of the abstract nature of concept when paired with the word conveyed, the word conveyed transitions to a slightly different meaning then it's historical Linguistic meaning in Linguistic semantics. Conveyed has undergone somewhat of a Semantic change in that it is used as an adjective to express the understanding by someone of something that was communicated to them. [5] This is especially true in the context of conveying meaning. In this context the actual material or words used to convey something to ‘Individual A’ is not the subject of the question - What was conveyed to 'Individual A'? Instead, in this context, convey means what is 'Individual A's' understanding of what was conveyed.[6]

A set phrase is an expression (i.e. term or phrase) whose parts are fixed (see examples below). It is often possible to express the idea conveyed by a set phrase with a different phrasing, but it is marked to do so.

Terminology is the study of terms and their use. Terms are words and compound words that are used in specific contexts. Not to be confused with "Terms" in colloquial usages, the shortened form of Technical terms (or terms of art) which are defined within a discipline or specialty field. The discipline Terminology studies among other things how such terms of art come to be and their interrelationships within a culture.

Linguistic strings can be made up of phenomena like words, phrases, and sentences, and each seems to have a different kind of meaning. Individual words all by themselves, such as the word "bachelor," have one kind of meaning, because they only seem to refer to some abstract concept. Phrases, such as "the brightest star in the sky", seem to be different from individual words, because they are complex symbols arranged into some order. There is also the meaning of whole sentences, such as "Barry is a bachelor", which is both a complex whole, and seems to express a statement that might be true or false.

In linguistics the fields most closely associated with meaning are semantics and pragmatics. Semantics deals most directly with what words or phrases mean, and pragmatics deals with how the environment changes the meanings of words. Syntax and morphology also have a profound effect on meaning. The syntax of a language allows a good deal of information to be conveyed even when the specific words used are not known to the listener, and a language's morphology can allow a listener to uncover the meaning of a word by examining the morphemes that make it up.

Semantics is the study of meaning in communication. The word derives from Greek σημαντικός (semantikos), "significant"[1], from σημαίνω (semaino), "to signify, to indicate" and that from σήμα (sema), "sign, mark, token"[2]. In linguistics it is the study of interpretation of signs as used by agents or communities within particular circumstances and contexts.[3] It has related meanings in several other fields.

Semanticists differ on what constitutes meaning in an expression. For example, in the sentence, "John loves a bagel", the word bagel may refer to the object itself, which is its literal meaning or denotation, but it may also refer to many other figurative associations, such as how it meets John's hunger, etc., which may be its connotation. Traditionally, the formal semantic view restricts semantics to its literal meaning, and relegates all figurative associations to pragmatics, but this distinction is increasingly difficult to defend[4]. The degree to which a theorist subscribes to the literal-figurative distinction decreases as one moves from the formal semantic, semiotic, pragmatic, to the cognitive semantic traditions.

The word semantic in its modern sense is considered to have first appeared in French as sémantique in Michel Bréal's 1897 book, Essai de sémantique'. In International Scientific Vocabulary semantics is also called semasiology. The discipline of Semantics is distinct from Alfred Korzybski's General Semantics, which is a system for looking at non-immediate, or abstract meanings.

An agent is either:

* an entity who is capable of action
* someone (or something) who acts on behalf of another person.

In philosophy, action has developed into a sub-field called philosophy of action. Action is what an agent can do.

For example, throwing a ball is an instance of action; it involves an intention, a goal, and a bodily movement guided by the agent. On the other hand, catching a cold is not considered an action because it is something which happens to a person, not something done by one. Generally an agent doesn't intend to catch a cold or engage in bodily movement to do so (though we might be able to conceive of such a case). Other events are less clearly defined as actions or not. For instance, distractedly drumming ones fingers on the table seems to fall somewhere in the middle. Deciding to do something might be considered a mental action by some. However, others think it is not an action unless the decision is carried out. Unsuccessfully trying to do something might also not be considered an action for similar reasons (for e.g. lack of bodily movement). It is contentions whether Believing, intending, and thinking are actions since they are mental events.

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Behaviorism
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Behaviorism or Behaviourism, also called the learning perspective, is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors.[1] The school of psychology maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind.[2] Behaviorism comprises the position that all theories should have observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately observable processes (such as thinking and feeling).[3]

From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school of thought ran concurrently and shared commonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology into the 20th century; but also differed from the mental philosophy of the Gestalt psychologists in critical ways.[citation needed] Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson who rejected introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and B.F. Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning. [3] In the second half of the twentieth century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the cognitive revolution.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Versions
* 2 B.F. Skinner and radical behaviorism
o 2.1 Definition
o 2.2 Experimental and conceptual innovations
o 2.3 Relation to language
* 3 Molar versus molecular behaviorism
* 4 Behaviorism in philosophy
* 5 List of notable behaviorists
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

[edit] Versions

There is no classification generally agreed upon, but some titles given to the various branches of behaviorism include:

* Classical: The behaviorism of Watson; the objective study of behavior; no mental life, no internal states; thought is covert speech.
* Methodological: The objective study of third-person behavior; the data of psychology must be inter-subjectively verifiable; no theoretical prescriptions. It has been absorbed into general experimental and cognitive psychology.
* Radical: Skinner's behaviorism; is considered radical since it expands behavioral principles to processes within the organism; in contrast to methodological behaviorism; not mechanistic or reductionist; hypothetical (mentalistic) internal states are not considered causes of behavior, phenomena must be observable at least to the individual experiencing them. Willard Van Orman Quine used many of radical behaviorism's ideas in his study of knowing and language.
* Logical: Established by Oxford philosopher Gilbert Ryle in his book The Concept of Mind (1949).
* Teleological: Post-Skinnerian, purposive, close to microeconomics.
* Theoretical: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states ("within the skin" once meant "unobservable", but with modern technology we are not so constrained); dynamic, but eclectic in choice of theoretical structures, emphasizes parsimony.
* Biological: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules of behavior, theory of behavior systems.
* Inter behaviorism: Founded by J. R. Kantor before Skinner's writings and currently worked by L. Hayes; E. Ribes; and S. Bijou. centered in the inter behavior of organisms, field theory of behavior; emphasis on human behavior.

Two popular subtypes are Neo: Hullian and post-Hullian, theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological, and Purposive: Tolman’s behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology.

[edit] B.F. Skinner and radical behaviorism

Main article: Radical behaviorism

Skinner, who carried out experimental work mainly in comparative psychology from the 1930s to the 1950s, but remained behaviorism's best known theorist and exponent virtually until his death in 1990, developed a distinct kind of behaviorist philosophy, which came to be called radical behaviorism. He is credited with having founded a new version of psychological science, which has come to be called behavior analysis or the experimental analysis of behavior after variations on the subtitle to his 1938 work The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis Of Behavior.

[edit] Definition

B.F Skinner was influential in defining radical behaviorism, a philosophy codifying the basis of his school of research (named the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, or EAB.) While EAB differs from other approaches to behavioral research on numerous methodological and theoretical points, radical behaviorism departs from methodological behaviorism most notably in accepting treatment of feelings, states of mind and introspection as existent and scientifically treatable. This is done by identifying them as something non-dualistic, and here Skinner takes a divide-and-conquer approach, with some instances being identified with bodily conditions or behavior, and others getting a more extended 'analysis' in terms of behavior. However, radical behaviorism stops short of identifying feelings as causes of behavior.[1] Among other points of difference were a rejection of the reflex as a model of all behavior and a defense of a science of behavior complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism has considerable overlap with other western philosophical positions such as American pragmatism [4]

[edit] Experimental and conceptual innovations

This essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms[5] and Schedules of Reinforcement.[6] Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function--shared consequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and S-R theory.

Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations – Thorndike's notion of a stimulus-response 'association' or 'connection' was abandoned – and methodological ones – the use of the 'free operant', so called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, and to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers, a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior.[7]

[edit] Relation to language

As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with Verbal Behavior[8] and other language-related publications;[9] Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by Noam Chomsky.[10] Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas,[11] and the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further discussed.[12][13]

What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was not language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement,[14] Skinner took the view that humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior.

[edit] Molar versus molecular behaviorism

Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior; that is, each behavior can be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inaccurate when one considers his complete description of behavior as delineated in the 1981 article, Selection by Consequences and many other works. Skinner claims that a complete account of behavior has involved an understanding of selection history at three levels: biology (the natural selection or phylogeny of the animal); behavior (the reinforcement history or ontogeny of the behavioral repertoire of the animal); and for some species, culture (the cultural practices of the social group to which the animal belongs). This whole organism, with all those histories, then interacts with its environment. He often described even his own behavior as a product of his phylogenetic history, his reinforcement history (which includes the learning of cultural practices) interacting with the environment at the moment. Molar behaviorists, such as Howard Rachlin argue that behavior can not be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that a behavior can be understood best in terms of the ultimate cause of history and that molecular behaviorist are committing a fallacy by inventing a fictitious proximal cause for behavior. Molar behaviorists argue that standard molecular constructs such as "associative strength" are such fictitious proximal causes that simply take the place of molar variables such as rate of reinforcement.[15] Thus, a molar behaviorist would define a behavior such as loving someone as exhibiting a pattern of loving behavior over time, there is no known proximal cause of loving behavior, only a history of behaviors (of which the current behavior might be an example of) that can be summarized as love. Molectular behaviorists use notions from Melioration theory, Negative power function discounting or additive versions of negative power function discounting.[16]

[edit] Behaviorism in philosophy

Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be compared with philosophy of mind. The basic premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural science, such as chemistry or physics, without any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as causes for their behavior. A modern example of such analysis would be Fantino and colleagues work on behavioral approaches to reasoning.[17] Other varieties, such as theoretical behaviorism, permit internal states, but do not require them to be mental or have any relation to subjective experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior.

There are points of view within analytic philosophy that have called themselves, or have been called by others, behaviorist. In logical behaviorism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap and Carl Hempel), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. W. V. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind. Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented 'category mistakes,' and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist.[18]

It is sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein defended a behaviorist position, but while there are important relations between his thought and behaviorism, the claim that he was a behaviorist is quite controversial (e.g., the Beetle in a box argument). Mathematician Alan Turing is also sometimes considered a behaviorist,[citation needed] but he himself did not make this identification.

[edit] List of notable behaviorists

* Albert Bandura
* Eddie M. Baker
* Edwin Ray Guthrie
* Richard J. Herrnstein
* Clark L. Hull
* Richard W. Malott
* Ivan Pavlov
* B. F. Skinner
* Edward Lee Thorndike
* Edward C. Tolman
* John B. Watson
* Ivar O. Lovaas

[edit] See also

* Animal training
* Applied behavior analysis
* Behavior modification
* Behavioural change theories

* Classical conditioning
* Cognition
* Cognitive revolution
* Dog behaviorist
* Experimental analysis of behavior
* Important publications in behaviorism

[edit] Notes

1. ^ a b Skinner, B.F. (1984). "The operational analysis of psychological terms". Behavioral and brain sciences(Print) 7 (4): 547–581. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
2. ^ Baum, William M. (1994). Understanding behaviorism: science, behavior, and culture. New York, NY: HarperCollins College Publishers. ISBN 0065002865.
3. ^ a b Fraley, LF (2001). "Strategic interdisciplinary relations between a natural science community and a psychology community" (pdf). The Behavior Analyst Today 2 (4): 209–324. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
4. ^ Moxley, RA (2004). "Pragmatic selectionism: The philosophy of behavior analysis" (pdf). The Behavior Analyst Today 5 (1): 108–125. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
5. ^ Skinner, B. F. (1991). Behavior of Organisms. Copley Pub Group, 473. ISBN 087411487X.
6. ^ Cheney, Carl D.; Ferster, Charles B. (1997). Schedules of Reinforcement (B. F. Skinner Reprint Series). Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group, 758. ISBN 087411828X.
7. ^ Commons, ML (2001). "A short history of the Society for the Quantitative Analysis of Behavior" (pdf). Behavior Analyst Today 2 (3): 275–279. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
8. ^ Skinner, Burrhus Frederick (1957). Verbal Behavior. Acton, Massachusetts: Copley Publishing Group. ISBN 1-58390-021-7.
9. ^ Skinner, BF (1969), An operant analysis of problem-solving, pp. 133–157 ; chapter in Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts, 283. ISBN 0131717286.
10. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1959). "A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Language 35 (35): 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334.
11. ^ Skinner, B. F. (1972). "I Have Been Misunderstood..". Center Magazine (March-April): 63.
12. ^ MacCorquodale, K. (1970). "On Chomsky's Review of Skinner’s VERBAL BEHAVIOR". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 13 (1): 83–99. doi:10.1901/jeab.1970.13-83. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
13. ^ Stemmer N (1990). "Skinner's verbal behavior, Chomsky's review, and mentalism". J Exp Anal Behav 54 (3): 307–15. doi:10.1901/jeab.1990.54-307. PMID 2103585.
14. ^ Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts, 283. ISBN 0131717286.
15. ^ Baum, W.M. (2003). "The molar view of behavior and its usefulness in behavior analysis". Behavior Analyst Today 4: 78–81. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
16. ^ Fantino E (2000). "Delay-reduction theory--the case for temporal context: comment on Grace and Savastano (2000)". J Exp Psychol Gen 129 (4): 444–6. PMID 11142857.
17. ^ Fantino, E.; Stolarz-fantino, S.; Navarro, A. (2003). "Logical fallacies: A behavioral approach to reasoning". The Behavior Analyst Today 4: 109–17. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
18. ^ Dennett, DC. "The Message is: There is no Medium". Tufts University. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.

[edit] Further reading

* Baum, W. M. (2005) Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Blackwell.
* Ferster, C. B., and Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
* Mills, John A., Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology, Paperback Edition, New York University Press 2000
* Lattal, K.A and Chase, P.N. (2003) "Behavior Theory and Philosophy". Plenum
* Plotnik, Rod. (2005) Introduction to Psychology. Thomson-Wadsworth (ISBN 0-534-63407-9)
* Rachlin, H. (1991) Introduction to modern behaviorism. (3rd edition.) New York: Freeman.
* Skinner, B.F., Beyond Freedom & Dignity, Hackett Publishing Co, Inc 2002
* Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
* Skinner, B. F. (1945). The operational analysis of psychological terms. Psychological Review. 52, 270-277, 290-294.
* Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior (ISBN 0-02-929040-6) Online version
* Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
* Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts
* Skinner, B. F. (1981). Selection by consequences. Science, 213, 501-514.
* Staddon, J. (2001) The new behaviorism: Mind, mechanism and society. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. Pp. xiii, 1-211.
* Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-177. (on-line)
* Watson, J. B. (1919). Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist
* Watson, J. B. (1924). Behaviorism
* Zuriff, G. E. (1985). Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction, Columbia University Press

[edit] External links

* Behaviorism entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by George Graham
* Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Behaviorism
* Books and Journal Articles On Behaviorism
* 301 Moved Permanently
* http://www.bfskinner.org
* Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies
* Science of Behavior
* The Behaviorist Approach on LearnPsychology glossary
* 301 Moved Permanently
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
* Association for Behavior Analysis International
* Behavior Analysis
* Association for Behavior Analysis
* behaviorMachine.com - Behavior Analysis for Everyone
* Theory of Behavioral Anthropology (Documents No. 9 and 10 in English)
* California Association for Behavior Analysis
* Society for Research in Adult Development Home Page Society for Research in Adult Development
* Behaviourism Behaviourism Summary

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