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Linguistics is the scientific study of language, encompassing a number of sub-fields. An important topical division is between the study of language structure (grammar) and the study of meaning (semantics). Grammar encompasses morphology (the formation and composition of words), syntax (the rules that determine how words combine into phrases and sentences) and phonology (the study of sound systems and abstract sound units). Phonetics is a related branch of linguistics concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones), non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived.
Over the twentieth century, following the work of Noam Chomsky[1], linguistics came to be dominated by the Generativist school, which is chiefly concerned with explaining how human beings acquire language and the biological constraints on this acquisition. Generative theory is modularist in character. While this remains the dominant paradigm[2], Chomsky's writings have also gathered much criticism. Other linguistic theories have increasingly gained popularity. Cognitive linguistics is a prominent example. There are many sub-fields in linguistics, which may or may not be dominated by a particular theoretical approach: evolutionary linguistics attempts to account for the origins of language; historical linguistics explores language change and sociolinguistics looks at the relation between linguistic variation and social structures.
A variety of intellectual disciplines are relevant to the study of language. Although certain linguists have downplayed the relevance of some other fields[3], linguistics — like other sciences — is highly interdisciplinary and draws on work from such fields as psychology, informatics, computer science, philosophy, biology, human anatomy, neuroscience, sociology, anthropology, and acoustics.
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Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding of how the physical world works. Through controlled methods, science uses observable physical evidence of natural phenomena to collect data, and analyzes this information to explain what and how things work. Such methods include experimentation that tries to simulate natural phenomena under controlled conditions and thought experiments. Knowledge in science is gained through research.
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game over latin ruins it.
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Brett Lorenzo Favre (pronounced /ˈfɑrv/[1]) (born on October 10, 1969, in Gulfport, Mississippi, US) is an American football player who was the starting quarterback for the Green Bay Packers of the National Football League (NFL) from 1992 to 2007. Favre started at the quarterback position for The University of Southern Mississippi for four years before being selected in the second round of the 1991 NFL Draft by the Atlanta Falcons (33rd overall). After one season with the Falcons, Favre was traded to the Green Bay Packers on February 10, 1992 for the 19th pick in the 1992 NFL Draft. He became the Packers' starting quarterback in the fourth game of the 1992 NFL season, starting every game from then on through the 2007 season.[2]
Favre is the only three-time AP MVP (1995-97) in NFL history and led the Packers to two Super Bowls: a victory against the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XXXI and a loss to the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXXII. His records include: most career NFL touchdown passes (442), most career NFL passing yards (61,655), most career pass completions (5,377), most career pass attempts (8,758), most career NFL interceptions thrown (288), most consecutive starts among NFL quarterbacks (253; 275 total starts including playoffs), and most career victories as a starting quarterback (160).[3][4]
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October 10 is the 283rd day of the year (284th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 82 days remaining until the end of the year.
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A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing one or more extra days (or, in the case of lunisolar calendars, an extra month) in order to keep the calendar year synchronised with the astronomical or seasonal year. For example, in the Gregorian calendar, February has 29 days in a leap year instead of the usual 28 - and consequently, the year lasts 366 days instead of the common 365. Because seasons and astronomical events do not repeat at an exact number of full days, a calendar that had the same number of days in each year would, over time, drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. A year that is not a leap year is called a common year.
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A lunisolar calendar is a calendar in many cultures whose date indicates both the moon phase and the time of the solar year. If the solar year is defined as a tropical year then a lunisolar calendar will give an indication of the season; if it is taken as a sidereal year then the calendar will predict the constellation near which the full moon may occur. Usually there is an additional requirement that the year have a whole number of months, in which case most years have 12 months but every second or third year has 13 months.
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A calendar is a system of organizing days for a social, religious, commercial or administrative purpose. This organization is done by giving names to periods of time – typically days, weeks, months and years. The name given to each day is known as a date. Periods in a calendar (such as years and months) are usually, though not necessarily, synchronized with the cycles of some astronomical phenomenon, such as the cycle of the sun, or the moon.
Many civilizations and societies have devised a calendar, usually derived from other calendars on which they model their systems, suited to their particular needs.
A calendar is also a physical device (often paper). This is the most common usage of the word. Other similar types of calendars can include computerized systems, which can be set to remind the user of upcoming events and appointments.
As a subset, 'calendar' is also used to denote a list of particular set of planned events (for example, court calendar).
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Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events, to compare the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify the motions of objects. Time has been a major subject of religion, philosophy, and science, but defining time in a non-controversial manner applicable to all fields of study has consistently eluded the greatest scholars.
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Measurement is the estimation of the magnitude of some attribute of an object, such as its length or weight, relative to a unit of measurement. Measurement usually involves using a measuring instrument, such as a ruler or scale, which is calibrated to compare the object to some standard, such as a meter or a kilogram. In science, however, where accurate measurement is crucial, a measurement is understood to have three parts: first, the measurement itself, second, the margin of error, and third, the confidence level — that is, the probability that the actual property of the physical object is within the margin of error. For example, we might measure the length of an object as 2.34 meters plus or minus 0.01 meter, with a 95% level of confidence.
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The margin of error is a statistic expressing the amount of random sampling error in a survey's results. The larger the margin of error, the less confidence one should have that the poll's reported results are close to the "true" figures; that is, the figures for the whole population.
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In statistics, sampling error or estimation error is the error caused by observing a sample instead of the whole population[1].
An estimate of a quantity of interest, such as an average or percentage, will generally be subject to sample-to-sample variation.[1] These variations in the possible sample values of a statistic can theoretically be expressed as sampling errors, although in practice the exact sampling error is typically unknown. Sampling error also refers more broadly to this phenomenon of random sampling variation.
The likely size of the sampling error can generally be controlled by taking a large enough random sample from the population,[2] although the cost of doing this may be prohibitive; see sample size and statistical power for more detail. If the observations are collected from a random sample, statistical theory provides probabilistic estimates of the likely size of the sampling error for a particular statistic or estimator. These are often expressed in terms of its standard error.
Sampling error can be contrasted with non-sampling error. Non-sampling error is a catch-all term for the deviations from the true value that are not a function of the sample chosen, including various systematic errors and any random errors that are not due to sampling. Non-sampling errors are much harder to quantify than sampling erro
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Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data. It is applicable to a wide variety of academic disciplines, from the natural and social sciences to the humanities, government and business.
Statistical methods can be used to summarize or describe a collection of data; this is called descriptive statistics. In addition, patterns in the data may be modeled in a way that accounts for randomness and uncertainty in the observations, and then used to draw inferences about the process or population being studied; this is called inferential statistics. Both descriptive and inferential statistics comprise applied statistics. There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.
The word statistics is also the plural of statistic (singular), which refers to the result of applying a statistical algorithm to a set of data, as in economic statistics, crime statistics, etc.
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Mathematics is the body of knowledge centered on such concepts as quantity, structure, space, and change, and also the academic discipline that studies them. Benjamin Peirce called it "the science that draws necessary conclusions".[2] Other practitioners of mathematics maintain that mathematics is the science of pattern, and that mathematicians seek out patterns whether found in numbers, space, science, computers, imaginary abstractions, or elsewhere.[3][4] Mathematicians explore such concepts, aiming to formulate new conjectures and establish their truth by rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions.[5]
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Knowledge is defined (Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i) expertise, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject, (ii) what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and information or (iii) awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation. Philosophical debates in general start with Plato's formulation of knowledge as "justified true belief". There is however no single agreed definition of knowledge presently, nor any prospect of one, and there remain numerous competing theories.
Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, learning, communication, association and reasoning. The term knowledge is also used to mean the confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use it for a specific purpose if appropriate.
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The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), published by the Oxford University Press (OUP), is a comprehensive dictionary of the English language.[1] The OED should not be confused with the one-volume Oxford Dictionary of English, formerly New Oxford Dictionary of English, of 1998.
As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained about 301,100 main entries. Supplementing the entry headwords, there are 157,000 bold-type combinations and derivatives; 169,000 italicized-bold phrases and combinations; 616,500 word-forms in total, including 137,000 pronunciations; 249,300 etymologies; 577,000 cross-references; and 2,412,400 usage quotations. The dictionary's latest, complete print edition (Second Edition, 1989) was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages.
The OED's official policy attempted to record a word's most-known usages and variants in all varieties of English past and present, world-wide. Per the 1933 Preface:
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Oxford University Press (OUP) is a publishing house and a department of the University of Oxford in England. It is the largest university press in the world, being larger than all the American university presses combined with Cambridge University Press.[1] It has branches all over the world including India, Pakistan, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, Singapore, Nigeria and the Republic of South Africa. OUP USA, established circa in 1896 and incorporated in 1897, is a private limited company affiliated to the parent body and was the Press's first international venture. The Canadian Branch, opened in 1905, was the second. OUP as a whole is managed by a body of elected representatives called the Delegates of the Press, who are all members of Oxford University. Today it has two main imprints: Oxford University Press, under which the bulk of its reference, educational, and scholarly publications appear, and the Clarendon Press, which is its "prestige" scholarly imprint. Most of the major branches function as local publishers as well as distributing and selling titles from OUP headquarters.
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Publishing is the process of production and dissemination of literature or information – the activity of making information available for public view. In some cases authors may be their own publishers, meaning; originators and developers of content also provide media to deliver and display the content.
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Literature is the art of written works. Literally translated, the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter). In Western culture the most basic written literary types include fiction and non-fiction.
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Art refers to a diverse range of human activities, creations, and expressions that are appealing or attractive to the senses or have some significance to the mind of an individual. The word "art" may be used to cover all or any of the arts, including music, literature and other forms. It is most often used to refer specifically to the visual arts, including media such as painting, sculpture, and printmaking. However it can also be applied to forms of art that stimulate the other senses, such as music, an auditory art. Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy which considers art.
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Human beings, humans, or Homo sapiens sapiens (Homo sapiens — Latin: "wise human" or "knowing human"[2]) are bipedal primates in the family Hominidae.[3][4] DNA evidence indicates that modern humans originated in Africa about 250,000 years ago. Humans have a highly developed brain, capable of abstract reasoning, language, introspection, and emotion. This mental capability, combined with an erect body carriage that frees the forelimbs (arms) for manipulating objects, has allowed humans to make far greater use of tools than any other species. Humans currently inhabit every continent on Earth, except Antarctica (although several governments maintain seasonally-staffed research stations there). Humans also now have a continuous presence in low Earth orbit, occupying the International Space Station. The human population on Earth is greater than 6.7 billion, as of July, 2008.[5]
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latin ruins the day again.
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Hines E. Ward, Jr. (Korean: 하인스 워드/Kim Hyun-ae) (born March 8, 1976 in Seoul, South Korea) is a multiracial (African American & Korean) football player who currently plays wide receiver for the NFL's Pittsburgh Steelers. He was voted MVP of Super Bowl XL. Born to a Korean mother and an African American father, he has become an advocate for ethnic minorities in South Korea.
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Korean (한국어/조선말, see below) is the official language of North Korea and South Korea. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture in China. There are about 80 million Korean speakers, with large groups in Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Japan, the United States, CIS (post-Soviet states), and more recently the Philippines.
The genealogical classification of the Korean language is debated. Some linguists place it in the Altaic language family, while others consider it to be a language isolate. It is agglutinative in its morphology and SOV in its syntax. Like Japanese, the Korean language was influenced by the Chinese language in the form of Sino-Korean words. Native Korean words account for about 35% of the Korean vocabulary, while about 60% of the Korean vocabulary consists of Sino-Korean words. The remaining 5% comes from loan words from other languages, 90% of which are from English.[2]
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game over already, language plays spoiler this time.
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Ben Roethlisberger (born March 2, 1982, in Lima, Ohio[1]), nicknamed Big Ben, is an American football quarterback for the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League. He was drafted by the Steelers 11th overall in the 2004 NFL Draft. He played college football at Miami University.
Roethlisberger earned the AP NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year in 2005. He became the youngest Super Bowl-winning quarterback in NFL history, helping to lead the Steelers to a 21-10 victory over the Seattle Seahawks in Super Bowl XL at the age of 23. He was named to his first Pro Bowl in 2007.
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March 2 is the 61st day of the year (62nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 304 days remaining until the end of the year.
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leap years killed this one.
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What are you watching on TV? thread is about about to be passed.
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i suspect by 7:45 we'll reach 100k.
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that's good then I can go get something to eat possibly.
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A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface or crust, which allows hot, molten rock, ash, and gases to escape from below the surface. Volcanic activity involving the extrusion of rock tends to form mountains or features like mountains over a period of time.
Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are pulled apart or come together. A mid-oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of volcanoes caused by "divergent tectonic plates" pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has examples of volcanoes caused by "convergent tectonic plates" coming together. By contrast, volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one another. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the Earth's crust (called "non-hotspot intraplate volcanism"), such as in the African Rift Valley, the Wells Gray-Clearwater Volcanic Field and the Rio Grande Rift in North America and the European Rhine Graben with its Eifel volcanoes.
Volcanoes can be caused by "mantle plumes". These so-called "hotspots" , for example at Hawaii, can occur far from plate boundaries. Hotspot volcanoes are also found elsewhere in the solar system, especially on rocky planets and moons.
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In geology, a crust is the outermost solid shell of a planet or moon. Crust is chemically and mechanically different from underlying material. Crusts of Earth, our Moon, Mercury, Venus, and Mars have been generated largely by igneous processes, and these crusts are richer in incompatible elements than the underlying mantles. Crusts are also present on moons of outer planets and have formed by similar or analogous processes: for instance, Io, a moon of Jupiter, also has a crust formed by igneous processes.
Earth has the best characterized and perhaps the most complex crust of all the planets and moons in our solar system. An overview of our crust is provided in the entry on Structure of the Earth, and the two contrasting types of crust are discussed in entries on continental crust and oceanic crust. Despite the details known about Earth's crust, its early history is obscure. The rapidly growing base of knowledge about other bodies in the solar system provides insights into the beginnings of Earth history as well as into other possible paths of planetary evolution. Studies of the Moon have been particularly valuable for understanding the early Earth.
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Geology (from Greek: γη, gê, "earth"; and λόγος, logos, "speech" lit. to talk about the earth) is the science and study of the solid matter that constitutes the Earth. Encompassing such things as rocks, soil, and gemstones, geology studies the composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that shape Earth's components. It is one of the Earth sciences. Geologists have established the age of the Earth at about 4.6 billion (4.6x109) years, and have determined that the Earth's lithosphere, which includes the crust, is fragmented into tectonic plates that move over a rheic upper mantle (asthenosphere) via processes that are collectively referred to as plate tectonics. Geologists help locate and manage the Earth's natural resources, such as petroleum and coal, as well as metals such as iron, copper, and uranium. Additional economic interests include gemstones and many minerals such as asbestos, perlite, mica, phosphates, zeolites, clay, pumice, quartz, and silica, as well as elements such as sulfur, chlorine, and helium. Geology is also of great importance in the applied fields of civil engineering, soil mechanics, hydrology, environmental engineering and geohazard
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greek is the death to the streak.
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I'm going to have 20k spam before the end of the year
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Namco Bandai reports profits fall
Namco Bandai has reported its financial results for the first fiscal quarter of 2009, with a fall in profit of around 63 per cent compared to the previous year.
The three months to the end of March saw profit just above the JPY 1 billion (USD 9.2 million) mark, compared to last year's Q1 figure of JPY 2.8 billion (USD 25.8 million).
Revenue and operating income were also both down year-on-year, by 6.4 per cent to JPY 90 billion (USD 830 million) and by 65 per cent to JPY 1.5 billion (USD 13.8 million) respectively.
However, the company is still predicting revenue and operating income to show slight growth by the end of March 2009, with full year targets of 470 billion (USD 4.3 billion) and 38 billion (USD 351 million) respectively - although profit is expected to fall in the same period by 31 per cent compared to full year 2008.
The videogames section of the business was actually the only segment to show sales growth in Q1 year-on-year, up 3.8 per cent to JPY 25.5 billion (USD 235 million).
Japan saw the majority of the company's unit sales, with 1.7 million titles sold, while Europe was responsible for 1.39 million, North America for 740,000 and the rest of Asia for 113,000.
Those numbers are set to jump following new releases to 13.4 million in Japan for the full year, 5.68 million in Europe, 5.46 million in North America and 300,000 in the rest of Asia.
In Q1 the most popular title was Dragon Ball Z Budokai Tenkaichi 3, selling 420,000 units in Europe, followed by Japanese duo Taiko Drum Master for DS 2 on 260,000 and Tales of Symphonia on 215,000.
The PlayStation 2 platform was the company's best-selling console for games with 1.15 million units sold for it, followed by the Nintendo DS on 985,000 and the PlayStation Portable on 769,000.
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we'll reach 100k by 8 for sure.
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It's going to be hard to steal 100k with so many online.
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Logos (Greek λόγος, = logos) is an important term in philosophy, analytical psychology, rhetoric and religion. It derives from the verb λέγω legō: to count, tell, say, or speak.[1] The primary meaning of logos is: something said; by implication a subject, topic of discourse, or reasoning. Secondary meanings such as logic, reasoning, etc. derive from the fact that if one is capable of λέγειν (infinitive) i.e. speech, then intelligence and reason are assumed.
Its semantic field extends beyond "word" to notions such as "thought, speech, account, meaning, reason, proportion, principle, standard", or "logic". In English, the word is the root of "logic," and of the "-ology" suffix (e.g., geology).[2]
Heraclitus established the term in Western philosophy as meaning both the source and fundamental order of the cosmos. The sophists used the term to mean discourse, and Aristotle applied the term to rational discourse. The Stoic philosophers identified the term with the divine animating principle pervading the universe. After Judaism came under Hellenistic influence, Philo adopted the term into Jewish philosophy. The Gospel of John identifies Jesus as the incarnation of the Logos, through which all things are made. The gospel further identifies the Logos as God (theos).
Psychologist Carl Jung used the term for the masculine principle of rationality.
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Jesses Girl by Rick Springfield is what I'm listening to
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250......................
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fail......................
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Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the phenomenological and scientific study of mental processes and behavior. Psychologists study such concepts as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, behavior, interpersonal relationships, and the individual and collective unconscious. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity including issues related to daily life—e.g. family, education, and work—and the treatment of mental health problems. Psychology attempts to understand the role these functions play in social behavior and in social dynamics, while incorporating the underlying physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions of mental functioning. Psychology includes many sub-fields of study and application concerned with such areas as human development, sports, health, industry, media, law.
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Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education and research.
The word comes from the akademeia just outside ancient Athens, where the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, had formerly been an olive grove, hence the expression "the groves of Academe".
By extension Academia has come to connote the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the seventeenth century, English and French religious scholars popularized the term to describe certain types of institutions of higher learning. The English adopted the form academy while the French adopted the forms acadème and académie.
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Higher education is education provided by universities, vocational universities, community colleges, liberal arts colleges, technical colleges, and other collegial institutions that award academic degrees, such as career colleges.
Since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At world level, the United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13, which states that "higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction of free education".
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Education encompasses both the teaching and learning of knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency. It thus focuses on the cultivation of skills, trades or professions, as well as mental, moral & aesthetic development.[1]
Formal education consists of systematic instruction, teaching and training by professional teachers. This consists of the application of pedagogy and the development of curricula. In a liberal education tradition, teachers draw on many different disciplines for their lessons, including psychology, philosophy, information technology, linguistics, biology, and sociology. Teachers in specialized professions such as astrophysics, law, or zoology may teach only in a narrow area, usually as professors at institutions of higher learning. There is much specialist instruction in fields of trade for those who want specific skills, such as required to be a pilot, for example. Finally, there is an array of educational opportunity in the informal sphere- for this reason, society subsidizes institutions such as museums and libraries. Informal education also includes knowledge and skills learned and refined during the course of life, including education that comes from experience in practicing a profession.
The right to education is a fundamental human right. Since 1952, Article 2 of the first Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights obliges all signatory parties to guarantee the right to education. At world level, the United Nations' International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 guarantees this right under its Article 13.
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In education, a teacher is one who helps students or pupils, often in a school, as well as in a family, religious or community setting. A teacher is an acknowledged guide or helper in processes of learning. A teacher's role may vary between cultures. Academic subjects are emphasized in many societies, but a teacher's duties may include instruction in craftsmanship or vocational training, spirituality, civics, community roles, or life skills. In modern schools and most contemporary occidental societies, where scientific pedagogy is practiced, the teacher is defined as a specialized profession on the same level as many other professions.
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he word student is etymologically derived through Middle English from the Latin second-type conjugation verb "stŭdērĕ", meaning "to direct one's zeal at"; hence a student could be described as 'one who directs zeal at a subject'. In its widest use, "student" is used for anyone who is learning
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Etymology is the study of the history of words — when they entered a language, from what source, and how their form and meaning have changed over time.
In languages with a long detailed history, etymology makes use of philology, the study of how words change from culture to culture over time. However, etymologists also apply the methods of comparative linguistics to reconstruct information about languages that are too old for any direct information (such as writing) to be known. By analyzing related languages with a technique known as the comparative method, linguists can make inferences, about their shared parent language and its vocabulary. In this way, word roots have been found which can be traced all the way back to the origin of, for instance, the Indo-European language family.
Even though etymological research originally grew from the philological tradition, nowadays much etymological research is done in language families where little or no early documentation is available, such as Uralic and Austronesian.
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History is the study of the past, particularly the written record[1] of the human race, but more generally including scientific and archaeological discoveries about the past. Recently, there has been an increased interest in oral histories and traditions, passed down from generation to generation verbally. New technology, such as photography, sound recording, and motion pictures, now complement the written word in the historical record.
Academically, history is the field of research producing a continuous narrative and a systematic analysis of past events of importance to the human race.[2] Those who study history as a profession are called historians.
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A document (noun) is a bounded physical representation of body of information designed with the capacity (and usually intent) to communicate. A document may manifest symbolic, diagrammatic or sensory-representational information. To document (verb) is to produce a document artifact by collecting and representing information. In prototypical usage, a document is understood as a paper artifact, containing information in the form of ink marks. Increasingly, documents are also understood as digital artifacts.
Colloquial usage is revealed by the connotations and denotations that appear in a Web search for document. From these usages, one can infer the following typical connotations:
* Writing that provides information (especially information of an official nature)
* Anything serving as a representation of a person's thinking by means of symbolic marks
* A written account of ownership or obligation
* To record in detail; "The parents documented every step of their child's development"
* A digital file in a particular format
* To support or supply with references; "Can you document your claims?"
* An artifact that meets a legal notion of document for purposes of discovery in litigation
The variety of usage reveals that the notion of document has rich social and cultural aspects besides the physical, functional and operational aspects.
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nformation as a concept has a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.
Many people speak about the Information Age as the advent of the Knowledge Age[citation needed][who?] or knowledge society, the information society, the Information revolution, and information technologies, and even though informatics, information science and computer science are often in the spotlight, the word "information" is often used without careful consideration of the various meanings it has acquired.
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Conveyed concept is a set phrase that denotes a concept as understood or perceived. If someone explains an idea or if an idea is conveyed by some type of media then that idea or concept, yes, is a conveyed concept but in the mind of the person/people to whom it was conveyed it is a concept processed within the framework of their understanding of that concept. That concept, being either poorly or precisely conveyed, is now a concept as understood or processed by whomever it was conveyed to and can be referred to as a conveyed concept.[1] [2]
In computer programming a conveyed concept refers to information sent from programmer to AI, computer-to-computer, human to computer, programmer to programmer, etc. In programming an AI program, the conveyed concepts of the AI program are used as building blocks to program new concepts, and it is important that the conveyed concepts are fine tuned in order to create the correct response. In programming, programs need to compare conveyed concepts in order to communicate a correct process or response. In this media the concepts being compared are not what was programmed (the code) but the response of the program so that the code can be changed to achieve the correct response. [3] [4]
Because of the abstract nature of concept when paired with the word conveyed, the word conveyed transitions to a slightly different meaning then it's historical Linguistic meaning in Linguistic semantics. Conveyed has undergone somewhat of a Semantic change in that it is used as an adjective to express the understanding by someone of something that was communicated to them. [5] This is especially true in the context of conveying meaning. In this context the actual material or words used to convey something to ‘Individual A’ is not the subject of the question - What was conveyed to 'Individual A'? Instead, in this context, convey means what is 'Individual A's' understanding of what was conveyed.[6]
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A set phrase is an expression (i.e. term or phrase) whose parts are fixed (see examples below). It is often possible to express the idea conveyed by a set phrase with a different phrasing, but it is marked to do so.
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Terminology is the study of terms and their use. Terms are words and compound words that are used in specific contexts. Not to be confused with "Terms" in colloquial usages, the shortened form of Technical terms (or terms of art) which are defined within a discipline or specialty field. The discipline Terminology studies among other things how such terms of art come to be and their interrelationships within a culture.
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Linguistic strings can be made up of phenomena like words, phrases, and sentences, and each seems to have a different kind of meaning. Individual words all by themselves, such as the word "bachelor," have one kind of meaning, because they only seem to refer to some abstract concept. Phrases, such as "the brightest star in the sky", seem to be different from individual words, because they are complex symbols arranged into some order. There is also the meaning of whole sentences, such as "Barry is a bachelor", which is both a complex whole, and seems to express a statement that might be true or false.
In linguistics the fields most closely associated with meaning are semantics and pragmatics. Semantics deals most directly with what words or phrases mean, and pragmatics deals with how the environment changes the meanings of words. Syntax and morphology also have a profound effect on meaning. The syntax of a language allows a good deal of information to be conveyed even when the specific words used are not known to the listener, and a language's morphology can allow a listener to uncover the meaning of a word by examining the morphemes that make it up.
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Semantics is the study of meaning in communication. The word derives from Greek σημαντικός (semantikos), "significant"[1], from σημαίνω (semaino), "to signify, to indicate" and that from σήμα (sema), "sign, mark, token"[2]. In linguistics it is the study of interpretation of signs as used by agents or communities within particular circumstances and contexts.[3] It has related meanings in several other fields.
Semanticists differ on what constitutes meaning in an expression. For example, in the sentence, "John loves a bagel", the word bagel may refer to the object itself, which is its literal meaning or denotation, but it may also refer to many other figurative associations, such as how it meets John's hunger, etc., which may be its connotation. Traditionally, the formal semantic view restricts semantics to its literal meaning, and relegates all figurative associations to pragmatics, but this distinction is increasingly difficult to defend[4]. The degree to which a theorist subscribes to the literal-figurative distinction decreases as one moves from the formal semantic, semiotic, pragmatic, to the cognitive semantic traditions.
The word semantic in its modern sense is considered to have first appeared in French as sémantique in Michel Bréal's 1897 book, Essai de sémantique'. In International Scientific Vocabulary semantics is also called semasiology. The discipline of Semantics is distinct from Alfred Korzybski's General Semantics, which is a system for looking at non-immediate, or abstract meanings.
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An agent is either:
* an entity who is capable of action
* someone (or something) who acts on behalf of another person.
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In philosophy, action has developed into a sub-field called philosophy of action. Action is what an agent can do.
For example, throwing a ball is an instance of action; it involves an intention, a goal, and a bodily movement guided by the agent. On the other hand, catching a cold is not considered an action because it is something which happens to a person, not something done by one. Generally an agent doesn't intend to catch a cold or engage in bodily movement to do so (though we might be able to conceive of such a case). Other events are less clearly defined as actions or not. For instance, distractedly drumming ones fingers on the table seems to fall somewhere in the middle. Deciding to do something might be considered a mental action by some. However, others think it is not an action unless the decision is carried out. Unsuccessfully trying to do something might also not be considered an action for similar reasons (for e.g. lack of bodily movement). It is contentions whether Believing, intending, and thinking are actions since they are mental events.
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Behaviorism
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Behaviorism or Behaviourism, also called the learning perspective, is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors.[1] The school of psychology maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind.[2] Behaviorism comprises the position that all theories should have observational correlates but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately observable processes (such as thinking and feeling).[3]
From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school of thought ran concurrently and shared commonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology into the 20th century; but also differed from the mental philosophy of the Gestalt psychologists in critical ways.[citation needed] Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson who rejected introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and B.F. Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning. [3] In the second half of the twentieth century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the cognitive revolution.
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Versions
* 2 B.F. Skinner and radical behaviorism
o 2.1 Definition
o 2.2 Experimental and conceptual innovations
o 2.3 Relation to language
* 3 Molar versus molecular behaviorism
* 4 Behaviorism in philosophy
* 5 List of notable behaviorists
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links
[edit] Versions
There is no classification generally agreed upon, but some titles given to the various branches of behaviorism include:
* Classical: The behaviorism of Watson; the objective study of behavior; no mental life, no internal states; thought is covert speech.
* Methodological: The objective study of third-person behavior; the data of psychology must be inter-subjectively verifiable; no theoretical prescriptions. It has been absorbed into general experimental and cognitive psychology.
* Radical: Skinner's behaviorism; is considered radical since it expands behavioral principles to processes within the organism; in contrast to methodological behaviorism; not mechanistic or reductionist; hypothetical (mentalistic) internal states are not considered causes of behavior, phenomena must be observable at least to the individual experiencing them. Willard Van Orman Quine used many of radical behaviorism's ideas in his study of knowing and language.
* Logical: Established by Oxford philosopher Gilbert Ryle in his book The Concept of Mind (1949).
* Teleological: Post-Skinnerian, purposive, close to microeconomics.
* Theoretical: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states ("within the skin" once meant "unobservable", but with modern technology we are not so constrained); dynamic, but eclectic in choice of theoretical structures, emphasizes parsimony.
* Biological: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules of behavior, theory of behavior systems.
* Inter behaviorism: Founded by J. R. Kantor before Skinner's writings and currently worked by L. Hayes; E. Ribes; and S. Bijou. centered in the inter behavior of organisms, field theory of behavior; emphasis on human behavior.
Two popular subtypes are Neo: Hullian and post-Hullian, theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological, and Purposive: Tolman’s behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology.
[edit] B.F. Skinner and radical behaviorism
Main article: Radical behaviorism
Skinner, who carried out experimental work mainly in comparative psychology from the 1930s to the 1950s, but remained behaviorism's best known theorist and exponent virtually until his death in 1990, developed a distinct kind of behaviorist philosophy, which came to be called radical behaviorism. He is credited with having founded a new version of psychological science, which has come to be called behavior analysis or the experimental analysis of behavior after variations on the subtitle to his 1938 work The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis Of Behavior.
[edit] Definition
B.F Skinner was influential in defining radical behaviorism, a philosophy codifying the basis of his school of research (named the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, or EAB.) While EAB differs from other approaches to behavioral research on numerous methodological and theoretical points, radical behaviorism departs from methodological behaviorism most notably in accepting treatment of feelings, states of mind and introspection as existent and scientifically treatable. This is done by identifying them as something non-dualistic, and here Skinner takes a divide-and-conquer approach, with some instances being identified with bodily conditions or behavior, and others getting a more extended 'analysis' in terms of behavior. However, radical behaviorism stops short of identifying feelings as causes of behavior.[1] Among other points of difference were a rejection of the reflex as a model of all behavior and a defense of a science of behavior complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism has considerable overlap with other western philosophical positions such as American pragmatism [4]
[edit] Experimental and conceptual innovations
This essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms[5] and Schedules of Reinforcement.[6] Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function--shared consequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and S-R theory.
Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations – Thorndike's notion of a stimulus-response 'association' or 'connection' was abandoned – and methodological ones – the use of the 'free operant', so called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, and to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers, a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior.[7]
[edit] Relation to language
As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with Verbal Behavior[8] and other language-related publications;[9] Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by Noam Chomsky.[10] Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas,[11] and the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further discussed.[12][13]
What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was not language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement,[14] Skinner took the view that humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior.
[edit] Molar versus molecular behaviorism
Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior; that is, each behavior can be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inaccurate when one considers his complete description of behavior as delineated in the 1981 article, Selection by Consequences and many other works. Skinner claims that a complete account of behavior has involved an understanding of selection history at three levels: biology (the natural selection or phylogeny of the animal); behavior (the reinforcement history or ontogeny of the behavioral repertoire of the animal); and for some species, culture (the cultural practices of the social group to which the animal belongs). This whole organism, with all those histories, then interacts with its environment. He often described even his own behavior as a product of his phylogenetic history, his reinforcement history (which includes the learning of cultural practices) interacting with the environment at the moment. Molar behaviorists, such as Howard Rachlin argue that behavior can not be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that a behavior can be understood best in terms of the ultimate cause of history and that molecular behaviorist are committing a fallacy by inventing a fictitious proximal cause for behavior. Molar behaviorists argue that standard molecular constructs such as "associative strength" are such fictitious proximal causes that simply take the place of molar variables such as rate of reinforcement.[15] Thus, a molar behaviorist would define a behavior such as loving someone as exhibiting a pattern of loving behavior over time, there is no known proximal cause of loving behavior, only a history of behaviors (of which the current behavior might be an example of) that can be summarized as love. Molectular behaviorists use notions from Melioration theory, Negative power function discounting or additive versions of negative power function discounting.[16]
[edit] Behaviorism in philosophy
Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be compared with philosophy of mind. The basic premise of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural science, such as chemistry or physics, without any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as causes for their behavior. A modern example of such analysis would be Fantino and colleagues work on behavioral approaches to reasoning.[17] Other varieties, such as theoretical behaviorism, permit internal states, but do not require them to be mental or have any relation to subjective experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior.
There are points of view within analytic philosophy that have called themselves, or have been called by others, behaviorist. In logical behaviorism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap and Carl Hempel), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. W. V. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind. Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented 'category mistakes,' and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist.[18]
It is sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein defended a behaviorist position, but while there are important relations between his thought and behaviorism, the claim that he was a behaviorist is quite controversial (e.g., the Beetle in a box argument). Mathematician Alan Turing is also sometimes considered a behaviorist,[citation needed] but he himself did not make this identification.
[edit] List of notable behaviorists
* Albert Bandura
* Eddie M. Baker
* Edwin Ray Guthrie
* Richard J. Herrnstein
* Clark L. Hull
* Richard W. Malott
* Ivan Pavlov
* B. F. Skinner
* Edward Lee Thorndike
* Edward C. Tolman
* John B. Watson
* Ivar O. Lovaas
[edit] See also
* Animal training
* Applied behavior analysis
* Behavior modification
* Behavioural change theories
* Classical conditioning
* Cognition
* Cognitive revolution
* Dog behaviorist
* Experimental analysis of behavior
* Important publications in behaviorism
[edit] Notes
1. ^ a b Skinner, B.F. (1984). "The operational analysis of psychological terms". Behavioral and brain sciences(Print) 7 (4): 547–581. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
2. ^ Baum, William M. (1994). Understanding behaviorism: science, behavior, and culture. New York, NY: HarperCollins College Publishers. ISBN 0065002865.
3. ^ a b Fraley, LF (2001). "Strategic interdisciplinary relations between a natural science community and a psychology community" (pdf). The Behavior Analyst Today 2 (4): 209–324. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
4. ^ Moxley, RA (2004). "Pragmatic selectionism: The philosophy of behavior analysis" (pdf). The Behavior Analyst Today 5 (1): 108–125. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
5. ^ Skinner, B. F. (1991). Behavior of Organisms. Copley Pub Group, 473. ISBN 087411487X.
6. ^ Cheney, Carl D.; Ferster, Charles B. (1997). Schedules of Reinforcement (B. F. Skinner Reprint Series). Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group, 758. ISBN 087411828X.
7. ^ Commons, ML (2001). "A short history of the Society for the Quantitative Analysis of Behavior" (pdf). Behavior Analyst Today 2 (3): 275–279. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
8. ^ Skinner, Burrhus Frederick (1957). Verbal Behavior. Acton, Massachusetts: Copley Publishing Group. ISBN 1-58390-021-7.
9. ^ Skinner, BF (1969), An operant analysis of problem-solving, pp. 133–157 ; chapter in Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts, 283. ISBN 0131717286.
10. ^ Chomsky, Noam (1959). "A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior". Language 35 (35): 26–58. doi:10.2307/411334.
11. ^ Skinner, B. F. (1972). "I Have Been Misunderstood..". Center Magazine (March-April): 63.
12. ^ MacCorquodale, K. (1970). "On Chomsky's Review of Skinner’s VERBAL BEHAVIOR". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 13 (1): 83–99. doi:10.1901/jeab.1970.13-83. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
13. ^ Stemmer N (1990). "Skinner's verbal behavior, Chomsky's review, and mentalism". J Exp Anal Behav 54 (3): 307–15. doi:10.1901/jeab.1990.54-307. PMID 2103585.
14. ^ Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts, 283. ISBN 0131717286.
15. ^ Baum, W.M. (2003). "The molar view of behavior and its usefulness in behavior analysis". Behavior Analyst Today 4: 78–81. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
16. ^ Fantino E (2000). "Delay-reduction theory--the case for temporal context: comment on Grace and Savastano (2000)". J Exp Psychol Gen 129 (4): 444–6. PMID 11142857.
17. ^ Fantino, E.; Stolarz-fantino, S.; Navarro, A. (2003). "Logical fallacies: A behavioral approach to reasoning". The Behavior Analyst Today 4: 109–17. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
18. ^ Dennett, DC. "The Message is: There is no Medium". Tufts University. Retrieved on 2008-01-10.
[edit] Further reading
* Baum, W. M. (2005) Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Blackwell.
* Ferster, C. B., and Skinner, B. F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
* Mills, John A., Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology, Paperback Edition, New York University Press 2000
* Lattal, K.A and Chase, P.N. (2003) "Behavior Theory and Philosophy". Plenum
* Plotnik, Rod. (2005) Introduction to Psychology. Thomson-Wadsworth (ISBN 0-534-63407-9)
* Rachlin, H. (1991) Introduction to modern behaviorism. (3rd edition.) New York: Freeman.
* Skinner, B.F., Beyond Freedom & Dignity, Hackett Publishing Co, Inc 2002
* Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
* Skinner, B. F. (1945). The operational analysis of psychological terms. Psychological Review. 52, 270-277, 290-294.
* Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior (ISBN 0-02-929040-6) Online version
* Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
* Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts
* Skinner, B. F. (1981). Selection by consequences. Science, 213, 501-514.
* Staddon, J. (2001) The new behaviorism: Mind, mechanism and society. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. Pp. xiii, 1-211.
* Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-177. (on-line)
* Watson, J. B. (1919). Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist
* Watson, J. B. (1924). Behaviorism
* Zuriff, G. E. (1985). Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction, Columbia University Press
[edit] External links
* Behaviorism entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by George Graham
* Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Behaviorism
* Books and Journal Articles On Behaviorism
* 301 Moved Permanently
* http://www.bfskinner.org
* Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies
* Science of Behavior
* The Behaviorist Approach on LearnPsychology glossary
* 301 Moved Permanently
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
* Association for Behavior Analysis International
* Behavior Analysis
* Association for Behavior Analysis
* behaviorMachine.com - Behavior Analysis for Everyone
* Theory of Behavioral Anthropology (Documents No. 9 and 10 in English)
* California Association for Behavior Analysis
* Society for Research in Adult Development Home Page Society for Research in Adult Development
* Behaviourism Behaviourism Summary
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Classical logic identifies a class of formal logics that have been most intensively studied and most widely used. They are characterised by a number of properties[1]; non-classical logics are those that lack one or more of these properties, which are:
1. Law of the excluded middle and Double negative elimination;
2. Law of noncontradiction;
3. Monotonicity of entailment and Idempotency of entailment;
4. Commutativity of conjunction;
5. De Morgan duality: every logical operator is dual to another.
Classical logic is bivalent, i.e. it uses only Boolean-valued functions. And while not entailed by the preceding conditions, contemporary discussions of classical logic normally only include propositional and first-order logics.
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